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carolineweekes' Journal

Below are the 11 most recent journal entries.

 

 
  2004.04.07  13.12
Final entry

Upon sitting down to write this last entry for RLG371, the first thought that immediately arose to express my current mode of thought and change in outlook was one from the poet Rimbaud, who, upon reflection on his life, stated in disbelief, “The horror of my stupidity”. As I have now reread and considered the vast amount material that both I and my group mates have produced, I am somewhat shocked to realize how significantly this process of interactive writing has influenced me. I will admit that at the beginning of the course I was wary of “blogging”; partly because my uncertainty forced me to realize that I was far from being a true daughter of modernity, and also because I was doubtful of the benefit that could be gleaned from such an experience. However, upon submitting my first entry, (which was much less difficult that I had expected) and reading those of my group mates, my opinion was profoundly changed.

If I had thought that I had little to gain from the writings of others, I was quickly proven wrong with the reading of I-ching and Chinese monks in India. After reading this text, I had assumed that it was quite straightforward in content, if not a little dry, and in doing so missed a great deal that was to be gained from this reading. My group members were instrumental in changing my perception both of the text itself and more importantly of my own reading of it. In Nicole’s comment to my first entry, she stated that the setting was important to the understanding of the reading, as saw the Silk road as a character which itself influenced the ascetic nature of the monks. This interesting perspective on the setting of the story was helpful to me as I realized that the setting was not merely the backdrop for a story, without significance unto itself. Rather she helped me to see that one’s own context cannot be separated from one’s experiences and directly contributes to them. This concept was helpful for later readings such as the Life of Milarepa, in which Milarepa’s setting too influences his personal narrative.

Furthermore, while I had felt the text to be impersonal quickly judged it as such, Randall commented that the collective identity of the monks conveyed in the text represented in a unifying way the larger collective of humanity, which I felt to be very insightful. It made me realize that we as humans all strive for similar goals of survival, personal betterment, etc. just as the monks were all striving for enlightenment. And although highlighting this common goal or purpose, may deprive us of individuality, it also serves to unite us. His comment added a significance and universality to the text that I had not before noticed.

Similarly, Emily’s interpretation of this text significantly altered my perception of the text, and of my own critical analysis. We had all commented that the text was dry, list like and lacking in the details that would normally contribute interest in a biography, and I merely wrote it off as such. But Emily made the point that this choice of concise format was purposeful, and intended to demonstrate the emptiness of the material world. Through highlighting only the brief actions of the monks, I-ching was subtly emphasizing the Buddhist appeal to avoid absorption in the sensory details.

This comment was eye opening for me, and I looked at the reading in an entirely different light after her comment. I realized that the writings, which appeared simple on the surface were in fact themselves demonstrations of Buddhist teachings, and held much more significance that I first attributed to them. This concept was directly linked to the idea of expedient means, which was important in understanding the readings throughout the semester. Also I realized that the style of writing that I had considered unintentional and unimportant, was in fact the opposite. Emily’s comment made me aware that the intentional use of style is as important as the content expressed. I became aware that one must read the text more critically, for more than content, which I had previously been trained to do, up till that point. This insight was of HUGE benefit to me, for the analysis of later readings and for my academic career in general.

Another reading which similarly highlighted the importance of my groupmates’ interpretations to my own understanding of the text was that of Dogen in Sounds of Vallley Streams. Again the style of writing in this text was fundamental to its understanding. Dogen used a poetic rather than literal style in his essays, a fact which I at first overlooked while analyzing the content of his essays. As a result I was often left with an uncertain understanding of the content and was frustrated by my inability to penetrate the text, not realizing that perhaps this lack of ease in reading the text was purposeful on the part of Dogen. In her entry, Emily commented that Dogen used poetic language purposefully to frustrate people, in order to force the reader out of their literal or logical mental constructs, to be able to think in a new way. I found this comment extremely insightful, as I once again confronted the idea that the style of the text was chosen purposely to convey something to the reader. In this case, the idea that true reality may not be linguistic or logical was conveyed by the poetic language of Dogen. This was important as it made me aware that language can be used in ways other than the direct literal expression of ideas, as we discussed in class, and also again that one must read a text critically.

The understanding this text, in terms of language, was also aided by Nicole’s post on Dogen concerning the translation of the text. She commented that in the original text, Dogen uses many different words to express the idea of enlightenment, while the translator uses only the single term of enlightenment, which might lead to the loss of nuance in the words chosen by Dogen. I found this to be a relevant point, as many of the texts we read are in fact translations. Her comment brought to my attention the amount that we rely on the translator’s interpretation of the language, and that amount that we are influenced by the subjectivity of another when reading this material. Again, this post by a group member brought to my attention the importance of reading texts in an informed and critical manner.

Similarly, Lisa’s post on Dogen, and the importance of language was also informative to my understanding of the text. She commented that the variety of words that Dogen uses to described enlightenment, could be due to his cultural context. As the ideas of enlightenment were so engrained in the community, many different words had arisen to describe it. She compared this multiplicity of terms to the Inuit words for snow. As snow was a much more familiar concept to the Inuit peoples, they developed more terms to describe it. I found this comparison to be quite interesting, and helpful in understanding Dogen’s use of language and the translator’s apparent oversight in the translation of these terms. Again, my group mates sensitivity to the importance of language and style in this text, as well as the importance of the cultural context in which they were created greatly helped my understanding of Dogen and my approach to reading critically in general.

Another assumption of mine that I was confronted with through the writings of my group mates was the extent to which I, as a reader, accept at face value the facts presented by the texts. Although I often feel I read in a critical manner, this class has been instrumental in forcing me to confront the facts presented in the texts and to consider them critically. For example, in her post on Dogen, Emily highlights the difference between what Dogen teaches in his essays, and what he teaches by example in his life. She made clear that there was a contradiction between his texts, which advocated an engagement in the world outside the monastery, and between his activities, which were located within the monastery. I found this point very important as it highlights the idea that one cannot accept the description in a text as the accurate representation of religious practice.

This point was also relevant to later readings in this course. For example, in the reading on Son monasticism in Korea, I quickly accepted the idea that meditational practice was the dominant feature of the monastic life of the monks, with little critical analysis. I was forced to confront this assumption, however, upon reading Sharf’s analysis on Buddhist meditation. Only after this reading did I better understand the previous reading to be a description of a small number of the monks in the monastic community and not representative of their activities in general. Through Emily’s post, and this later example, I realized that often I do not read the text’s as critically as I should.

Due to my own writing and the writings of my group mates, my approach to reading was greatly altered. I developed in this class the ability to read more critically, in terms of the analysis of language, style, content and cultural context of the texts. In addition, the format of our discussions greatly added to my understanding of the texts. By being able to read the interpretations of my group members as well as read their responses to my own writings, a dialogue was created in which the exchange of ideas was facilitated. I found this process to be extremely helpful in releasing my mind from my own hegemonic interpretation of the texts. Through criticism of my points and the differing opinions of my peers , my understanding of the material was greatly expanded, and my own personal biases weakened.

I also feel that this style of writing forced me to be more aware and critical of what I was writing. As I knew that my posts would be subject to analysis by other people, I had to not only consider what I was writing in an in depth manner, but also be prepared to defend and respond to criticism and comments from other readers. Writing in this conscious manner challenged me to think critically and to develop my own voice and interpretation of texts in a group setting, which I think was very important. The “blog” format, which was more relaxed and dialogic than other academic writings, also allowed a new type of expression for me. I think this style of writing facilitates the expression of ideas more so than a more rigid academic format because in a group context where the writings are intended to generate discussion there is more freedom for hypothesis and speculation. This hypothetical writing generated more interesting and challenging ideas than I think would have been possible in an essay format.

Most importantly, I think that the differences in interpretation of the texts that were made clear through the format of posting and class discussion. The question of absolute or relative truth is one that I debate with my friends regularly, and I think this experience was reflective of this larger discussion. On almost every aspect of discussion in the class this year there were differing interpretations, all of which were valid. I found this group discussion quite informative to my understanding of truth, knowledge and all aspects of reality. It became clear that understanding was subjective, and that although the reading of the texts aided the discussion and contributed to a knowledge of Buddhism in general, it was not the only determining factor. Each person read the texts in a slightly different, personal way reflective of their own context. While it is impossible to determine if there is one correct understanding of any phenomenon, it became clear to me at least that the multiplicity of interpretations greatly added to my understanding of the concepts being discussed. This variety also contributed to my understanding that the process of acquisition of knowledge is subjective , as is the understanding of reality.

I would also like to briefly express my appreciation for the unique dialogue and exchange of ideas which occurred in this class. Thank you Emily, Lisa, Randall, Nicole, Professor Garrett and the rest of the class for contributing to my experience in this class and for increasing my awareness of Buddhism, literature and the world so profoundly. I am extremely grateful.

  
 


 
  2004.04.01  08.00
Sharf's article on meditation

I found the article on meditative experience and modern Buddhism by Robert Sharf to be both revealing and disturbing. While I did not find his article to be as provocative or controversial as many of my classmates did, I was still left unnerved as I realized that perhaps, after all, I did not know as much about Buddhism as I had thought. The article primarily calls into question two main assumptions about meditation in Buddhism; that it occupies a dominant place in religious activity, and that it involves an altered consciousness or some type of transformative inner experience. As both of these assumptions had fully penetrated into my understanding of Buddhism, I will now attempt to reconsider my previous understanding in light of his article.

Much of my knowledge of Buddhism has come from this class and the texts we have read. I developed what I now think was an idealized view of Buddhism rather than a practical one. After reading texts like the Lotus Sutra, which discussed the accumulation of wisdom to reach enlightenment and was filled with a plethora of supernatural deities as well as Buddhas and bodhisattvas, I hadn’t stopped to consider the role this text played in the Buddhist religious experience. Instead of portraying literal or illusory events which would occur for the disciples only after great training, it perhaps instead only functioned as a goal, a fable intended to show the beauty and desirability of reaching enlightenment as a means to seduce practitioners into further study.

Because of Sharf’s article, I considered what I had learned from other texts as well. The Life of Milarepa presented an ascetic and disciplined form of Buddhism focused primarily on meditation. However, this book again may have functioned merely as a religious ideal, with enlightenment as the goal to be reached after much hard work. Again, I think that I focused on assessing the value of the events in the story as literal, rather than realizing the story functioned with a specific purpose in Buddhism, of encouraging people into faith and practice. Perhaps it was never intended that followers focus on meditation as often as Milarepa. However, it is probable that his immediate followers would have followed his example, and thus it would not be exaggerated to state that meditation was the central religious activity in their lives; a fact which could have led to the belief that meditation holds a central place in most Buddhist religious activity. The danger with this assumption, however, is in accepting that a text can accurately reflect the practice among a group of people. And I think that this is where Sharf’s argument is well considered.

Also, this article made me realize that I also never questioned the nature of his meditative experience. It mentioned in the story that he meditated on teachings he had received but little description of his “inner experience” was given. I think my own preconceptions of what happened in meditation colored my reading of the text. However, that said, Milarepa does undergo some “transformative” experiences and does eventually reach enlightenment in the text. It can be assumed that his reaching enlightenment was facilitated by his meditative practice, and that as “enlightenment” entails a transformation in consciousness, part of this transformation occurred while in meditation. Thus, the common belief that through meditation one undergoes a transformative, inner experience is partly justified. Again, however, one must compare the idealistic textual account of meditation and enlightenment in which these events took place, with the actual practice among the people, where transformative experiences may or may not have occurred.

Similarly, when reading Dogen’s essays and Buswell’s article, I was led to believe that meditation held a central place in Buddhist religious activity. As Dogen’s essays focus on the importance of continually practicing meditation, and discuss the similarity between meditative experience and enlightenment, it was easy to accept that meditation held a central place for him (and his followers) and that an inner transformative experience occurred while in meditation. However, Dogen does not present his argument based on firsthand experience(I don’t think), but rather as the product of a philosophical understanding of reality. As such, it is difficult to determine whether his writings accurately reflect the nature of meditative experience or merely function as an incentive to practice. In addition, his writings may not reflect the religious activity of the group of people around him at the time. Perhaps meditation was as common as he indicates but perhaps dominant role of meditation in the text was idealistically created to represent what he thought should occur in practice, rather than what occurred in reality. The importance to me is not whether he reflected reality accurately because it is difficult if not impossible to know the true religious practice of his time. Instead, the importance lies in the questioning of this discrepancy, of not simply accepting that text and practice are similar but being aware that a difference between text and practice might have occurred among the people at the time.

Buswell’s article, in its own way, led me to an erroneous understanding of Buddhist practice. As the majority of the text focused on the meditation hall, I assumed that meditation comprised the majority of religious activity. I had forgotten however, that Buswell mentioned only 5% of the monks entered the meditation hall. 5%! That is hardly the majority of practitioners, a fact which I am ashamed I overlooked in my reading. In addition, I had also assumed that this meditation involved some sort of inner, transformative experience, while he mentions very little of the experience itself. Here too, I read into the text my own notions of meditatiave experience.

I think Sharf’s article is so compelling because he does not rule out the possibility that some people underwent a transformation of consciousness during the course of meditation, he simply states that it cannot be assumed that this occurred in the majority of cases. He states that more often both historically and in modern Buddhism, meditation functioned as a ritual performance, involving chanting and recitation, and I think this is most likely accurate. He states that for the majority monks enlightenment was considered an impossibly distant goal, and instead they worked to improve their merit to gain a better rebirth in the next life. Also, his view that the marga should not be read as accounts of an individuals inner experience but rather as a prescriptive account of the stages of the path was very interesting, as he states that many Buddhist scholars had assumed otherwise. Also compelling was his statement that as a result of these texts, the monks in meditation sought to validate their experience against scriptural descriptions, thus the expected state was already conceived of and may have influenced the experience. I thought this last point to be extremely insightful as I often question the relationship between true experience or perception and ones previous expectation or definition.

Sharf further states that by placing a greater role on meditative inner experience over textual study or instruction from teachers in modern reform types of Buddhism, scholars and Buddhist apologists have created a religious experience which cannot be analyzed critically, as it is personal. He feels that they embrace such descriptions of an inner non-discursive experience as a strategy to avoid proving the legitimacy of the experience. While this accusation seems a bit conspiratorial, the reality exists that if an experience is “inner” and nonlinguistic etc., that it is difficult to quantify, describe, or legitimate. However, one must question if this emphasis on meditation over scriptural study or clerical knowledge in modern reform Buddhism is in any way invalid. Perhaps now the nature of religious experience has changed and it is wrong to qualify it in terms of the religious practice of the past.

I found his idea that these reform movements had been most influenced by the west in the colonial period , and as such cultivated a romantic mystical slant to be very interesting. He hold that these movements attempted to find a relativistic position to western religion and thus adopted a more mystical spiritual version of Buddhism, which downplayed the ritual or magical elements of the religion in order to fit in with a western beliefs. He believes that these groups would have had the most contact with the west as a result and it is therefore likely that they would have held a dominant role over the western understanding of Buddhism. I find this theory to be logical and fascinating as a social-historical occurrence.

While I may not agree with some of the arguments presented in Sharf’s article, it was of fundamental importance to my understanding of Buddhism as it forced me to look critically at what I had understood and to reread critically the texts I had studied.

  
 


 
  2004.03.24  11.52
Reading 10: the hegemony of meditation in Sǒn monastic life.

In the Zen Monastic Experience, Buswell illustrates in detail the monastic practices of the Korean monk in the Sǒn tradition of Buddhism. By initially placing his work within the context of the Zen tradition in general, and in contrast/addition to the western conception of Zen in particular, Buswell attempts to incorporate his description of the practices of Korean monks into the already existing literature on the Zen tradition to create a better understanding of the true practice of Zen (Sǒn) in Korea.

He begins his introduction with a quote by Renato Rosaldo which states that “the problem of meaning resides in practice, not theory”. This quote is particularly relevant to Buswell’s discussion of Sǒn Buddhism as his emphasis throughout the book is on the monastic practices of the Sǒn practitioners and not on the philosophical/theoretical aspects of Sǒn. This stance implicates Buswell in the question of practice vs study, which is debated by different schools of Buddhism. While Buswell’s own experience is coloured by a practice related conception of Sǒn, I would suggest that this is not the only relevant form of Sǒn in Korea, or of Zen in Japan. In his experience, clearly, the rituals and meditation of everyday life had much more significance to his and his peers’ understanding of Buddhism, than did textual study.

However, this is not to say that the practice of Sǒn described is completely devoid of philosophical or textual study . Many times, Buswell mentions books of koans, sayings, and teachings of past masters which the monks read in their spare time. Lectures from the master, too , also derived in part from such sources. It would also appear that the monks were familiar with the scriptures such as the lotus sutra, from which they took stories as models of behavior, like that of the bodhisattva who offered his body as offering. But whether this information was passed orally or was read by the monks themselves is unclear. Again, rather than subjects of philosophical debate, the texts seem to serve as models of behaviour and aids to monastic practice, which too emphasizes the practical orientation of Sǒn monasticism.

Buswell’s description of Sǒn Buddhism altered my understanding of Zen Buddhism greatly, which was mostly derived from Dogen’s writings on the Zen tradition. While both Buswell and Dogen emphasize the importance of meditation in Zen practice, and do so by means of textual discussion, they do so in significantly different ways. Buswell describes the daily activities of the monks in the Songgwang-sa monastery in a straightforward journalistic reporting of events. His account is meant to be read as an accurate portrayal of monastic life, which demonstrates the emphasis on meditation, and the general rejection of textual study. Dogen, meanwhile writes also on the importance of meditation, but does so in a more esoteric, poetic style.

While Buswell provides an account of monastic activity, Dogen’s writing can be seen to be a philosophical justification of practice. This literary advocacy of meditation provides an interesting contradiction, for although practice is considered the primary means to realize enlightenment, Dogen does not write merely write an advocation of practice but a philosophical treatise which is both a religious text and a work of art. By writing in such a manner, rather than communicating through oral teachings or by direct example, Dogen indirectly advocates a theoretical nature of Zen Buddhism, and the importance of texts.

Other differences between Buswell’s and Dogen’s characterization of Zen(or Sǒn) include the role of samsara as aid in the process of enlightenment. Dogen presents the idea of engagement in the world as beneficial in the realization of enlightenment, which allowed for a lay practice of Buddhism that contributed to the popularity of his teachings. From this point of view, the seclusion of monastic life in a monastery or hermitage would seem unnecessary to religious practice, (although surely monasticism was prevalent in Soto Zen as well). Buswell, rather, presents a portrait of Sǒn monasticism which purposely removes the distractions of the everyday world, which are seen as deterring to the process of enlightenment.

However, perhaps this difference highlights not a difference in belief but rather differences in the abilities of the practitioners. While Dogen advocates engagement in the world, perhaps this is only meant as guidance for mature and dedicated monks or as a means of practice for lay people who would not otherwise have the ability to practice. Similarly, while Buswell mentions monastic practice, it does not mean that Sǒn monks could not gain spiritual benefit from engagement in the outside world.

The Role of koans in religious practice also differs between Dogen’s Soto Zen and the Korean Sǒn. While Dogen does not use these sayings as a means to aid meditation, other forms of Zen Buddhism in Japan are known to learn a great number of koans. However, in Sǒn Buddhism described by Bushwell, the koans are of primary importance. Through constant meditation on one particular hwadu, the primary phrase of the koan, and the feeling of doubt that arises,one will eventually gain enlightenment. This emphasis on the koan during meditation, highlights an important difference in practice.

Furthermore, the use of the koan can be related to the different concepts of enlightenment portrayed in Dogen’s and Buswell’s form of Buddhism. Buswell describes that after a long concentrated effort on the hwadu, and on the state of mind of the master before he asked the question, the monk will come to an understanding of that state of mind able to answer that question, or any question, and will have gained enlightenment. This realization of enlightenment, then, is characterized as a sudden experience, an event at the end of practice, rather than a process. Dogen , however, stresses that as enlightenment is innate in us already, and as such it is already present throughout the practice of meditation itself, and is part of an ongoing process, rather than a single event. This is a clear difference in the understanding of the occurence of enlightenment between the two traditions.

However, in both texts, the description of the act of meditation can be seen in some ways to be similar. Both describe the practice of meditation to be a long, ongoing experience, which one engages in throughout ones life. Neither tradition forwards the idea that once enlightenment has been achieved the practice of meditation is stopped. Rather both indicate the importance of meditation, both before and after realization, as a means to further develop understanding. In both traditions, then, enlightenment is not seen as a static quantity, but rather a continuum of understanding, only the initial occurrence of the realization of enlightenment seems to differ.

However, while both are Sǒn and Zen are similar schools of Buddhism, derived from similar sources, one cannot avoid the differences that arise from specific cultural contexts that contribute to the understanding of a tradition.

  
 


 
  2004.03.17  09.02
Reading 9: Discussion questions

1. The concept of this world being an illusion of true reality is common to Buddhist thought, and many events in the readings were implicated with the question of illusion vs. reality. In relation to this idea, in what sense do dreams relate to the understnading of this story, and how literally can the events in the story be interpreted? Furthermore, is this separation between the illusion/dream and reality significant to the conclusion of events?

2. This reading also called into question the deinitions of sexuality as well as associations between appropriate behaviour and monastic life. By reading through a western perspective, how much do our own connotations of sexuality and behaviour colour the reading of this text?Consider the acceptance of homosexuality in other cultures, as well as the proliferation of genders in other cultures.

3.As non-atachment to desire is valued in Buddhist belief, and the abandonment of attachments to close personal relationships colour the entrance into a monastic life, how can this story of desire and attachment to an individual be resolved? Is the priest's desire appropriate within the Buddhist tradition? While the desire was implicated by the actions of a bodhisatva, and this story considered a Buddhist sermon, is the moral appropriate for Buddhist practitioners? In what sense can this story be seen to fit within the Buddhist tradition in relation to the acceptance/use of samsara?

4 .As is discusses in the article, this story derives in form from love stories common to the period. How much can these stories be read as religious sermons as opposed to love stories? Are the literary means sufficient to justify the religious ends or is this merely pulp fiction?

  
 


 
  2004.03.03  11.47
Reading 7: Dogen's unified theory of reality.

In the reading of Sounds of Valley Streams, the essays of Dogen are presented with a discussion by Francis Cook, in order to explicate Dogen’s views on meditation, enlightenment, Buddha nature, and reality, as his concepts can be seen to differ significantly from the Chinese or Indian beliefs. While Dogen’s system of thought is solidly based in the Buddhist tradition, he can be seem to incorporate traditional Chinese beliefs on nature into his philosophy as well for a somewhat synthesized Buddhist perspective on reality.

Dogen’s departure from Chinese or Indian Buddhism can be first seen in a discussion of his view of Buddha-nature. While Dogen understands the Mahaparinirvana sutra to read “All are sentient beings and the entire beings is Buddha nature” the traditional understanding is “all sentient beings entirely possess Buddha nature”(19). This difference in understanding is significant as Dogen’s interpretation rejects the idea that Buddha nature is something distinct from the individual, something one possesses, because such a dualism implies that the Buddha and sentient beings are separate. Rather, he feels that all things are already Buddha nature, and all are holy, with intrinsic value(21).

Thus his understanding of reality is that appearance is absolute reality. All phenomena are of one reality, not both relative an absolute reality which would also be a dualistic understanding. His view is that relative reality is absolute reality(22). While he understands absolute reality to be the emptiness of phenomena and the correspondent interdependentness of beings, which is similar to other Buddhist beliefs, he feels that the world of interdependence is perfect/good which differs from traditional Buddhist understanding(24).

This philosophy is quite interesting in that it follows a logical conclusion that if all reality is empty (because are impermanent) all phenomena are equal. It would follow that if this is absolute reality is the Buddha nature( which is also impermanent because of being the emptiness of phenomena), then all things are the Buddha nature. While the logic of his argument is consistent, it leads to perhaps a oversimplified understanding of reality (which is a common criticism of his views). While he rejects the dualism of understanding beings to possess rather than be the Buddha nature, it is unclear as to why such a dualistic understanding is erroneous. His argument is rational, but, as any philosophical argument, it is merely one understanding of reality, not necessarily THE understanding.

However, perhaps his understanding of reality is not an over simplification, but rather an accurate portrayal of the simplicity and coherency of reality. As in science, often new discoveries, whether in dynamical systems or the relationship between energy and matter, lead to an understanding of phenomena which is much more simplified than the previous understanding. Although, the discoveries seem to simple to be applicable to all phenomena at first, it becomes apparent that the underlying process of reality ARE simple. Similarly, as religion or philosophy attempts to understand reality, Dogens’s view of the oneness of reality could be further example of the logical and simplistic organization of phenomena in the world.

However, that said, much of his rational is anything abut simplistic. I confess to having understood only part of his explanation of why a painting of a rice cake is the same as a rice cake. Although I understand that it is part of the idea that all phenomena are empty and therefore the same in essence, and all ultimate reality in different forms (26)When he discusses that all things are manifestations of painted rice cakes, and that rice cakes transcend time and that even if you encounter a picture of a rice cake, you haven’t, and that the rice cake is the manifestation of body/mind, I am completely confused. Is he saying that all reality is just the appearance of phenomena, without absolute form, that from is irrelevant? I Don’t know.

More easily understood, and (less frustrating) is Dogen’s idea that meditation and enlightenment are one. I found his idea that enlightenment is not a new discovery at the end of practice but is the awareness during the practice very interesting. Because of the concept that the state of enlightenment is the same of samadhi in meditation and that the experiences are therefore the same, the practice of meditation is significant as it increases the importance of practice throughout ones life, as a continual process to increase awareness. The idea that awareness is a continuum is quite interesting..

Similar to the idea in the Lotus Sutra that those who are listening to the teachings are the type of people that will becomes enlightened, the idea that to practice meditation or even think of enlightenment is enlightenment, is a liberating and accessible way of seeing Buddhist practice for the common person. In Dogen’s version of reality, no longer is it necessary to live a monastic life dedicated to study and renunciation of the world, but rather that to engage in meditation, and through this activity to proceed toward enlightenment. His teachings present a simple and accessible way for lay people to practice Buddhism, which is possibly why his teachings have held such popular appeal.
One wonders though, if this simplified version of Buddhism is sufficient. However, as any version of truth, it is subject to the value assigned to it by a group of people. And as much as this form of Buddhism is popularly practiced and believed in by a great number of people, it is a legitimate version of truth.

  
 


 
  2004.03.01  16.31
Reading 6:Machik's complete explanation

The selected readings from Machik’s complete explanation present a glimpse of the Chod tradition in Tibetan Buddhism to which Machik belonged. Although this text differs greatly from the Life of Milarepa, the two make up part of the same tradition. Whereas the Life of Milarepa took the form of a narrative of events of his life, Machik’s complete explanation takes the form of a dialogue of questions and answers between Machik and her disciples. As such, the presentation of information to the reader differs considerably between the two texts. In the life of Milarepa, the reader had to glean the information concerning the teachings/concepts of Milarepa’s religion from the text, rather than being presented with the information directly, as in Machik’s complete explanation, whereby many fundamental concepts to Chod are presented through the dialogue. I find this a little odd since the teachings of Machik are “esoteric” in nature yet more fully explained here than the teachings which were cryptically referred to in the Life of Milarepa.

For example, in the text of Machik, concepts such as the five degenerations, the preeminence of the Chod tradition, the importance of compassion, the classification of gods and demons, the stages of death, and the physiology of the body were presented, in response to questions by Machik’s disciples. As a result, the reader is left with a clear understanding of these ideas. However, less clear in this text is Machik herself. Very little about her life or personality can be understood from the text. She refers to herself several times as a “beggar woman”, which would indicate that a life of renunciation of the material is important to her beliefs. In addition, many disciples are mentioned which indicates she had a large following to whom she presented her teachings. Otherwise little information about her life is conveyed in this text.

This is much unlike the Life of Milarepa, in which the personal history, thoughts, emotions and trials of Milarepa are presented to the reader in order to convey an understanding of a particular religious individual within a tradition. The clear difference can be seen to be an emphasis on the individual vs. the emphasis on the teachings of the tradition. In Machik’s complete explanation, rather than being a just role model for behavior (a poor beggar, like Milarepa), Machik is presented as a vehicle for the Chod teachings. Whereas Milarepa primarily uses and recommends meditation to reach enlightenment, Machik enmphasizes the importance of the teachings to her disciples. Thus another important comparison can be made between the two texts, that of experience (practicing meditation) vs. scholasticism (learning teachings).

Similar again to the life of Milarepa was the importance of women in this text. I found it very interesting that the primary figure in the text was a woman. Machik was a respected lama with many disciples, many of which were also women. This is important within the Buddhist tradition, as it emphasizes , similar to that of the little girl in the Lotus stutra, that enlightenment is possible in the body of this lifetime, whether that be male or female. As Machik’s influence would indicate, women were respected religious leaders at this time, and were not hindered by there female status, attaining a position of religious status equal to that of men.. However, in Chapter 3 Machik herself states that “it is more important to benefit a single man than to benefit 100 women”(111). This statement would indicate that men are superior to women in terms of religious development, and would appear to contradict the idea of a respected (if not equal) status for women, and confirm the idea that women are somehow defiled or lesser as Shariputra states in the lotus sutra. I found the existence of this ambiguity in the religious status of women in the text interesting.

Also interesting and unusual in this text was the use the use of numbers for the categorization of information. Throughout the texts, much of the information is grouped into various classifications, such as the 5 degenerations, 4 devils, 6 kinds of gods/demons, 6 realms, 5 colors, 4000 channels, 360 bones etc. This type of classification of information appears unusual for a religious/philosophical text which discusses metaphysical subjects, as it is difficult to understand the importance of assigning numerical value to metaphysical truth. However, perhaps this information was classified in such as way as to aid the memory of the disciples of the teachings, as a better way to convey teachings in a structured manner. It is difficult to accept that the numbers themselves have any significance and are not more than arbitrary classifications.

This type of organization of information appears systematic and “scientific” in nature, especially in reference to the description of the body, which is normally considered a medicinal rather than a religious concern. In chapter 6, Machik discusses at great length the physiology of the body, both in terms of the energies and channels as well as the internal organs, bones, and muscles. Although this appears strange in a religious text, Professor garret pointed out that in Tibet the distinction between professions was less clear and that an individual could be proficient in religion, medicine and even exorcism, as all were seen to be interrelated in the betterment of the human condition. This differs greatly from our view today of various professions but it would explain the “scientific” nature of the organization of information and the physiological content of the teachings.

Also central to this text was the role of compassion as presented by Machik. While many people in the class felt that she was harsh and mean, I did not. Rather I felt that by her giving the disciples the teachings, as a means to help them to become enlightened she was acting compassionately towards them. In addition, by her addressing the disciples as son or daughter a strong relationship was set up between them, and the relationship between master and student more personalized. This may be explained by the concept that in a past lifetime we have all been each others mother/child and as such we should attempt to remember that relationship when relating to others.. This concept was presented clearly in Chapter 3, in which compassion towards enemies was encouraged on the basis that enemies have been loved ones and loved ones enemies in a past lifetime and that it is helpful to remember that and feel compassionately towards them.

Most interestingly in this text, I found, was the elaboration of the Buddhist cosmology. Throughout chapter 4, the numerous gods and devils were described. While many of these were abstract concepts such as ignorance or awareness, or human classification of beings/events by use of “good” or “bad”, others were actual spiritual beings which inhabited the world or another realm. This text seemed to highlight the presence of such beings more than the other texts studied thus far, not as much existentially as how they relate to humans and can hinder/aid their path to enlightenment. Here the cosmology seems almost human-centric with other beings often acting in relation to humans. I think this schema highlights the importance of humans as beings who have the ability to most easily reach enlightenment. The inclusion of such gods/demons in this text also shows the importance of such beings to the religious/lay people of this time in Tibet, who accepted them fully in their cosmology.This text provides a view into the religious an social life in Tibet at this time as well as an overview of some of the teachings of the Chod tradition

  
 


 
  2004.02.19  12.17
Reading 5: Contrast in the definition of history and religion in the Life of Milarepa

In the second half of the life of Milarepa we encounter further description of the trials of Milarepa on his path towards enlightenment as well as a description of his teachings to his various followers and an account of his death. The recount of these events can be seen as a means to glorify the monk's life and stress his importance as a master in the Kagyu tradition.

As discussed in class, the Life of Milarepa can be read as both a text and as a document. However, in trying to find socio-historical data in the Life of Milarepa, one must ask what history is and if that definition is applicable to this text. From a western scholarly standpoint, I would consider historical data to consist of locations, dates, people and movements which can be verified either scientifically (through physical geography/anthropology) or literally (by other texts, written accounts).In reading the Chinese monks in India with such a historical construct in mind, one finds the text to be a source of much historical information as it is organized in a list-like fashion, with names of many monks, the locations they visited, in specific times. However, little description of the sociological activity of the people/culture of this time is given in this text. In contrast the Life of Milarepa gives less detail of the activity of its characters in respect to time but provides a glimpse in to the lives of the lay and religious people, which is helpful in constructing a socio-history of these people in Tibet in the 11th century.

However, in using a western historical analysis, one encounters many problems in attempting to find historical data within the Life of Milarepa. Within the text, there are many references to magic, gods, manifestations of the Buddha or supernatural beings, but also to “historical” people and places. However, the text does not originate from a western culture and therefore its history may not be defined in a similar fashion. AS Professor Garrett mentioned, many Tibetan histories are also written in this manner. AS such, the Tibetan view of history may not exclude the supernatural from the realm of the possible/accurate or necessitate a particular place in time. Perhaps the life of Milarepa provides more history than is immediately obvious to the western reader.

That the Buddhist tradition does not place itself in linear time but rather in cyclical also makes the question of "history" difficult. perhaps why use of dreams in this text is so prevalent. The use of dreams appears to continue the narrative and acts as a foreshadowing of later events, perhaps because at some level the person is aware of the time ahead of him. Perhaps as Milarepa becomes closer to Enlightenment, and closer to the state of a Buddha, (who can’t be defined in terms of time or space)his awareness of time also shifts. Or perhaps, in view of the concept of karma, in which ones later decisions and circumstances are in some way shaped by previous actions, he is already implicated in a chain of events which will take place in the future.


This text also provides an idea of how the Buddhist tradition was passed on at this time. It would appear that knowledge is often transmitted from one person to another, which highlights the importance of the master student relationship. Throughout the story, most of the Buddhist teachings were gained through another person, in the form of secret texts, or through initiation. However, one can also gain knowledge through ones own activity. In the story, Milarepa meditates and becomes aware of many truths through his own efforts, and he makes realizations about himself/reality/emptiness, through his own meditation. Perhaps the knowledge comes from his own consciousness which, as he works to purify it, becomes closer to that of a Buddha. Knowledge is also gained through mediation by deities, or by interaction with the people around him, such as his sister or Zessay. Although they are not learned in the Buddhist tradition, he learns truth about samsara and meditation through interaction with them. This is significant as use of samsara as a means to reach enlightenment is typical to this type of Buddhism.

So much of religion as characterized in this text can be seen as the relationship between master and disciple, the adherence to a strictly ascetic life and the continued use of meditation. (although religious devotion and the donation of gifts also play an important role) However, other versions of religious activity are presented in the text most clearly by the example of another lama Milarepa encounters (Geshe Tsakpuhwa) and by the description of another (Bari Lotsawa) by his sister Peta. Lama Bari is rich and powerful and possesses many clothes, food, and followers. As he presents such a stark contrast to Milarepa, Peta believes that Milarepa’s asceticism is not necessary. By their example other options of religious practice are shown (such as studying Buddhist texts) and perhaps their path is no less valid. Although it is characterized as being lesser path in the text by Milarepa, the story is written from his perspective, and thus such as derogatory position to scholastic or “worldly” Buddhism would make sense in explaining the conflict in religious practice.

In Milarepa’s view, his master Marpa lives in the world because is strong and he advises a disciple against living an active life, because it is very difficult not to be tempted by worldly things. As such, Milarepa preaches and practices a more ascetic path than other lamas. However, this multiplicity of practice, leads to the question of whether there are many versions of truth each suited for the specific individual, or a universal way? Perhaps the differences in practice result from Milarepa’s belief in liberation from samsara in one lifetime, while the others believe it will take many?.

As such, a clear conflict exists as to what defines religion in the text. Although Milarepa’s path seems logical, he was proved many times that too strict asceticism is detrimental to his progress, and that he must be nourished in order to meditate properly. Although, such religious devotion is applauded, and upheld as a model of religious activity, perhaps his method is a bit more rigorous than is necessary. In reading the text, it appeared to me that Milarepa needed more faith in himself and in his own ability to remain indifferent to worldly pleasure. It often seemed as if Milarepa was rejecting food for the sake of rejection, rather than because he was truly tempted. However, as this text clearly shows, there is no objective truth in regards to religion. In as much that Milarepa believed this was the true path to enlightenment, dedicated himself to achieving it, and reached it , his life can be said to be the best or “truest” path he could have chosen.

  
 


 
  2004.02.03  22.57
reading 4: the significance of suffering in the life of milarepa

The Life of Milarepa provides its readers with an emotionally laden tale of a man’s quest for enlightenment which has become one of the most motivational works of the Buddhist tradition. This story can be read as both the description of the actions of a single man in pursuit of a life’s goal as much as a text which highlights many of the doctrines and practices important to Buddhism. As such, it is little wonder that this text has become so influential to Buddhists today, as a source for inspiration and a model for behavior. Neither is it surprising that the powerfully emotional and seemingly personal nature of this story has captivated a wide range of readers, who find familiarity and solace in this personal struggle. And this emotional appeal could perhaps be seen as Milarepa’s skill-in–means in presenting a story with Buddhist ideology in a palpable manner to reach a broader audience.

In the first half of The Life, Milarepa encounters a numbers of characters who either aid or injure him on his personal journey (to finding purpose and eventually enlightenment). In the beginning, Milarepa is surrounded by his immediate family, as well as his cousins, aunts, uncles and neighbors. After the death of his father, it becomes clear that many of his neighbors and family are unkind, and act very cruelly to him, his mother and his sister. As the story progresses, Milarepa’s mother also becomes cruel and vengeful as she asks him to commit evil deeds, and he encounters a lama, who teaches him the magic necessary to do great harm to his enemies.

At this point in the story there seems to be a break, as Milarepa becomes aware of the evil he has committed and seeks to remedy it. After this point the characters in his story, such as the lama Marpa and his master Naropa, benefit rather than detract from Milarepa’s spirituality. Although he has set into effect a karmic chain of events from which he cannot escape, Milarepa makes the effort to change and strives to learn and practice the Law. I think this is significant as he must surround himself with people who can aid him in his desire for enlightenment, and avoid misleading or negative people, which is a behavior that the Buddha recommended as necessary for reaching enlightenment in the Lotus Sutra. It follows that chronologically the characters in the story range from those who commit great evil to those who have reached the highest enlightenment, compassion and purity, a movement which parallels the transformation of character in himself.

Again in this text, as in the Lotus Sutra, a lesser role can be seen to be assigned to women than to men. The two most significant female characters in the story, Milarepa’s mother and Marpa’s wife Dakmena, are presented as examples of moral weakness which hinder Milarepa’s spiritual goals. His mother, in asking Milarepa to commit evil, contributes to the spiritual defilement which he suffers as consequence for his actions and Dakmena, in deceiving the lama in order to aid Milarepa to leave their home, also harms Milarepa, albeit less directly , in preventing him from completing his ordeal and thus preventing the complete purification from his evil deeds. However, Dakmena is afforded great esteem by Milarepa and others in this story, and as such is not seen to be a negative character but perhaps rather one of less spiritual resolve or wisdom than her husband. This attitude towards women seems to be prevalent in texts and stories such as these, and shows that even by the 11th century, (the supposed time of Milarepa) the Buddhist conception of women had not changed.

The most significant relationship in the first half of the life of Milarepa is that between Milarepa and Marpa. This relationship is clearly hierarchical, with Marpa in a clearly defined role as master and Milarepa as student. The relationship is marked not only by Milarepa’s complete obedience to Marpa despite the difficulty and apparent absurdity of his demands, but also by his devotion and love. Although not related by blood, Marpa and Milarepa do appear as father and son, and their interaction truly is characteristic of familial relationships, where emotion but not always rationality exists. Although it is not clear at first why Marpa is acting in such a manner, it becomes clear that he feels great emotion, even love, for Milarepa, and that it saddens him to see him suffer so. It becomes obvious that his demands were skillful means to aid Milarepa’s spiritual purification as he later reveals, which seems to be typical behavior for characters in Buddhist stories or parables.

Although this story mentions often that it takes place in Tibet, there is little physical description of the surroundings. Brief descriptions are given to the fields, houses and meditation areas, but few details of his homes or his travels, unlike the travels of the Chinese monks in India, where often the physical journeys of the monks were described in great detail. Perhaps this omission is intended as Milarepa’s tale is more of an emotional or spiritual journey than a physical. Also it is possible that the minimal description of the surroundings in this story could be a reflection or comment on the irrelevancy of the material world which surrounds us.

In addition to the non-attachment to the material, other Buddhist doctrines and practices are presented in this story. Some of the basic practices occur like meditation, chanting, asceticism, and the use of mandalas, in addition to some basic teachings, like to emptiness of phenomena, non-attachment to the material, the 4 noble truths, etc. However, many teachings that I was unfamiliar with were also mentioned throughout the text. I was surprised by the mention of the use of magic in the text. Not only does it bring into question this text as a literal autobiography ( which many times it is clear it is not) but also some of the practices performed by some “Buddhists” of the time. The lama from which Milarepa first learned magic, was a Buddhist and knew some of the teachings and yet still used and taught magic for evil purposes. Although this is later condemned by both Milarepa himself and Marpa, its inclusion in the text is surprising as an indication of the behavior of the time. Perhaps it is just a metaphor for evil behavior, or perhaps people believed in the power of the occult at this time.

I was also surprised, as in the lotus sutra, by the emphasis placed on precious objects in the text. Even Milarepa questions these practices and states that such behavior makes it a religion possible only for the rich. While Marpa says later that it is only necessary to give oneself, he both demands and gives gifts of tremendous value throughout the story. As we discussed before in class, it is strange that jewels and gold would be so highly valued to people who emphasize the non-attachment to the material.

This story can be seen to be a an encouragement for people seeking enlightenment and also as a standard of behavior. As Milarepa himself became enlightened and is worshipped by many people today, this story too is worshiped as a text unto itself and can be seen to inspire devotion and so be a means for people to become closer to this saint, an affiliation which might bring them aid in their own search for enlightenment. The biographies of other people in this story, such as Marpa or Naropa, can also be seen to exemplify the benefits of a devout and religious life and be a source of inspiration , as they too reached enlightenment. However, the histories of these individuals are much less central in the story of Milarepa, and so can be seen perhaps as just backdrops in the scene of his life. Perhaps it is in solitude and the non-attachment to the people around him, even to such an important figure as Marpa, Milarepa can best find enlightenment.

  
 


 
  2004.01.26  18.32
Reading three: The nature of devotion and the place of women in the Lotus Sutra

Upon reading the Lotus Sutra, many of the religious practices and ideologies which are associated with Buddhism today become evident in the text. However, it is difficult to say whether the text influenced or created these behaviors or merely solidified those that had existed before its creation (assuming the historical time of approximately 0-700C.E.). In particular, some of the devotional practices which are associated with Buddhism now, such as bringing offerings to an image of the Buddha or a Bodhisattva (like flowers, incense, clothing, and necklaces), giving alms, and using music and songs of praise as forms of worship, are listed in the sutra as the proper devotional practices for a faithful student of the Buddha.

As Professor Garrett suggested, to a western concept of devotion (and in a Christian context) the Buddhist religious practices may appear to be less inwardly directed and more physical in nature. However, in the Lotus Sutra, emphasis is also placed on the thoughts and prayers of the people to the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas, and to the Sutras themselves, in addition to the more ritualistic forms of devotion.

Furthermore, the ritualistic forms of devotion common in Buddhism may hold a significance other than their obvious devotional purpose. Earlier in this Sutra, the Buddha mentions that the people who perform these religious practices are important not only because they are faithful now but because they are the type of people who have worshiped in the past, who will continue to worship in the future and who will eventually reach enlightenment. By just performing the religious activity, an individual is indicating that he/she is one of the faithful, and this alone has significance unto itself, for it would follow that if one wasn’t a faithful person (in the current or past life) then one wouldn’t be inclined to devotion (in the current life) at all. Therefore performing the action takes on a greater significance as it, supposedly, places you in the ranks of those who will eventually reach nirvana.

As I am not Buddhist myself, I can only guess at the religious purpose of the donation of material possessions as devotional practice. One the one hand, the demonstration of giving away one one’s possessions as a gift to the Buddha could be seen as a renunciation of material possessions and as a symbol of the asceticism embraced by Buddhist monks. However, the donation of precious objects to (the shrine of) the Buddha could be given precisely because of the value they represent to the individual. If these objects are seen as precious, then the significance of their donation is greater in proportion to their worth. However, this idea would seem contrary to the fundamental concept in Buddhism which discourages the attachment to, or valuing of, one’s material possessions, which is itself mentioned in the Sutra.

In the reading on the “Chinese monks in India”, the renouncing of material possessions is applauded as the monks leave their homes to travel to India to study the old Buddhist texts. However, the biographies also mention that the monks worship (and presumably make significant donations) at various Buddhist shrines in India. The inclusion of this information in the sparse description of the monks activities would indicate that, even in the 7th century, devotion at shrines was an important part of worship. It is an interesting contrast that, even after renouncing the material possessions of the world in order to purify yourself, it is not enough to merely offer yourself to a statue of the Buddha , in the form of thoughts, prayers or music, but that in the end material possessions which are valued are necessary for worship.

The concept of the role of women in Buddhism is also addressed in this Sutra, and either contributed to or merely solidified the role of women in the religion at that time, and in the present. Chapter 12 of the Lotus Sutra presents the story of the eight year old daughter of the dragon king, who reaches enlightenment. This is surprising to many of the people present in the audience as many people felt women were not thought able to reach enlightenment at that time. Their existence as women, was not a legitimate form to reach nirvana, despite the fact that the Buddha’s sermons were directed to the four kinds of believers; monks, nuns, lay men and laywomen. Even Shariputra, one of the Buddha’s closest disciples, did not think women could reach enlightenment, because he felt that “a woman’s body is soiled and defiled, not a vessel for the Law.”

This story is significant because it presents the possibility that one may reach enlightenment in this lifetime, and that both women and children are capable of reaching it. This is important idea that is empowering for women, for it challenges the supremacy of men in the Buddhist tradition, as the Sutra makes clear that THIS body, in THIS lifetime can reach nirvana regardless of the form in which it might take. However, in the story, before the girl became a Buddha, she first became a man. The girl could not become a Buddha directly, it was only possible after her transformation into a man, and then as a bodhisattva that she could reach perfect enlightenment. This undermines not the ability for a woman to reach enlightenment, but rather her equality to a man in religious terms.

I think this is significant as it raises the concept of the importance of gender in the Buddhist tradition. The girl had to become a man in order to become a Buddha. This fact leads to the question of whether the Buddha himself is gendered. After the girl becomes a Buddha, the Sutra says that “ HE expounded the Law”. It is possible that the use of He is a pronoun used like in Christianity to discuss God, which can be understood not as an indication of gender but as a generic descriptor, like mankind, manmade etc. However, as the girl first became a man before becoming a Buddha I think its likely that the He was used to indicate that the gender of the Buddha is male.

In this text, the male body is clearly preferred to the female, as indicated by Shariputra’s comment. As such, the concept that the female body is sufficient for reaching enlightenment is not entirely true. In this story, it seems as if her body were merely a temporary vessel for her/him to begin the process to enlightenment, but not the vessel in which she /he could reach it. Because of the separation she takes from her body/identity as female, the possibility is raised that perhaps the body is separate from the mind. However, the girl is referred to as He after her transformation, and it is unclear whether the narrator is referring to her new form or her mind (consciousness) as male. Perhaps also her consciousness is transformed into a “male” form as well, before becoming perfectly enlightened. Regardless, this Sutra presents the possibility for women to reach enlightenment and justifies their religious activity in the monasteries.

  
 


 
  2004.01.20  17.27
Reading 2: Use of linguistic device and ambiguous content in the Lotus Sutra

In reading Watson's translation of the Lotus Sutra, the many linguistic devices which are used in the text and which are particular to it become immediately apparent. The most obvious instance is that the teachings in the Lotus Sutra are conveyed through both prose and verse. Withing each chapter often the same message is repeated in verse immediately following its occurrence in prose form. This use of repetition is significant as it occurs consistently throughout the sutra. As was suggested by Watson, the use of repetition in the text could have occurred as a result of oral transmission of the sutra before it was recorded. The repetition of passages would have aided the memory of whoever was reciting the sutra and was most likely included when the text was written. The use of repetition could also be used to add greater significance to the passages being repeated and to make clear the teaching being explained, as I found it did, during reading of the chapters of the Sutra.
Another particularity of the Lotus sutra which I find interesting is its existence as a self referential text. Many times throughout the text of this Sutra, it makes reference to itself as a completed teaching. During the transmission of the passages there is a consciousness expressed that they make up part of a whole Sutra. One which claims itself to be complex and difficult to comprehend. As the sutra is being conveyed by the Buddha, one is to understand that the transmission is irrespective of place or time. It becomes clear that the sutra has existed before and now that is has been taught will continue to exist to be taught to future students of Buddhist teaching. However, when reading the first few chapters of the Lotus sutra, I found that the preaching of the Sutra was mentioned in the text, but not the content of the teaching itself. It was as if the sutra was a description of the event of the Buddha delivering the Sutra, but without the sutra itself. This paradox is difficult to understand (at least it was for me), if we are to understand that what we are reading is the Lotus Sutra itself, which is being referred to. Later I read the introduction by Watson, who suggests that the Sutra may in fact merely "talk around" the teaching as the truth canot exist in words. perhaps this is true and would shed some light onto the absence of concrete teachings in some chapters of the Sutra.

I also found the use of parable an effective device in conveying the meanings of the Sutra. In Chapter 3, the Buddha uses the parable of the burning house to further explain to his disciples why they should now follow one vehicle when he had previously allowed three vehicles. Similar to scriptures in both Christianity and Islam, the use of parable to express religious doctrine is an effective means to express teachings. In this instance, the announcement that one should follow just one path was met with some confusion. The parable, surely clarified for some of the disciples ( as it did for myself), a more clear understanding of the statement. In fact, this idea, that one need only one vehicle to reach enlightenment, instead of the previous three, was a central theme of the Sutra. The Sutra also refers to many other basic teachings of Buddhism, such as the concepts of emptiness, suffering in the world, rebirth, and the importance of compassion.

One concept that I found interesting was described in Chapters 10 and 11 and said that whoever is listening to the Sutra preached by the Buddha will attain enlightenment at a later time. And further that anyone who reads or studies the Sutra with "joy" will also attain enlightenment. The explanation for such a statement was that if one is already listening to the teachings of the Lotus Sutra then that person had already studied and known Buddhas in a past life. So by virtue of being present, those people were the type of people who had studied and would continue to study until they reached enlightenment. I found this important for 2 reasons, first because it indicates that everyone has the potential to reach enlightenment, as the Buddha had explained earlier and conversely that one needed wisdom already to hear the Sutra. In the text it mentions that the Sutra was only for people with wisdom, and that others who were not prepared would just be confused or would ignore or revile the teachings (in which case the text says they will go to hell?) .Although it seems clear that in Buddhism every person has free will to choose their decisions, and accept consequences, such a statement as this would seem to indicate a predestination for one behaviour or another. In chapter 2, the Buddha tells his disciple that "those who delight in and are attached to the desires ...in the end will never seek the Buddha way...they will reject the law and fall into evil paths." This statement sounds similar to the rather controversial ideas in both Christianity and Islam again that if one is truly evil one is beyond redemption. Although in Buddhism such a predestination is set by actions in one's previous life, the quoted passage would seem to indicate that the individual would remain in evil. I could be mistaken, and I believe that chapter 12 mentions that any person, regardless of how evil, can attain enlightenment. The passage merely sounds contradictory to that idea.

  
 


 
  2004.01.18  20.40
Reading 1:Chinese monks in India

The selection of the biographies of Chinese monks in India describes the travels and religious activity of a number of monks during the T’ang dynasty. In his writing, I-ching lists a group of over 50 monks that he encountered on his travels to India. The men were all Buddhist monks of mostly Chinese or Korean descent who wished to study Buddhism and the old texts in India. Once in India, many of the monks stayed at a variety of different locations to study, translate texts, worship relics and discuss the teachings with other pilgrims, in order to bring back teachings and texts to China.
The routes that the pilgrims take from China to India (both over land and by sea)are included in the biographies of the monks. Along these routes were many centres in which traveling monks could meet, share ideas and teachings of Buddhism through discussion. During their journies, local kings would often support the monks's travels and allow them to study. This could be an indication of the extent to which Buddhism had spread through the areas between China and India during this time.
The routes to India are described by I-ching as perilous; he mentions crossing dangerous mountains, and rugged deserts in the scorching heat. He also mentions that he was often without food during his voyage and how exhausting, both physically and mentally, such travel must have been for the other monks. In addition, as can be seen in the biography of Hsuan-chao, the journey to India could be even more perilous as often the traveling monks were apprehended by robbers.
Although the journeys of the monks were undoubtedly dangerous as well as exhausting, it seems that I-ching has included these descriptions of the perils of the routes to India in part to suggest the courage and dedication of these monks and to show their perseverance in studying Buddhism. In doing so he sets them up as a standard of religious behaviour, perhaps as a model to be imitated by other Buddhist monks.
In each biography, I-ching mentions details of the monks travel such as their background, the journey to India, the locations in which they studied, the activities they participated in (whether it was studying or translating texts or worshipping relics etc.), their travels back to China or often their death in the process of one of the previous activities. Often much emphasis is placed on the journey to India and less on the experience of the monks once they were there. Very little description is given of the religious activities of the monks in India, other than brief mention of them studying texts or learning Sanskrit. The biographies of the monks who traveled to India then, become a rather dry list of names and records of death, rather than detailed examples of religious activity. It can be presumed that I-ching was familiar with more details of the particular experiences of the monks for whom he wrote biographies, but he failed to include this more personal revelatory information in his writings.
Each of the monks are discussed very briefly as well in terms of their personalities. I –ching records their names, and location of birth but rarely discusses the men as individuals. The biographies are all of men who were interested in studying Buddhism and willing to travel to India to increase their learning, and from this one may infer something about their personality (i.e. disciplined, studious, introspective), as perhaps is also indicated by the description of the trials of making such a journey( i.e. courageous, dedicated), but little direct reference to the character of the individual monks is made. As such, the biographies appear to be a list of events, describing the transmission of knowledge and activity of the monks, rather than an insight into the character of the Buddhist monk at this period. The biographies are then useful as a historical record which documents the activity of monks during the t’ang dynasty, and less as a personal record of a group of individuals. This dehumanization of the monks travels is interesting to note, and perplexing for a text presumably written to encourage other monks to undertake similar journeys.


Addition: After readiing the posts of my groupmates as well as other Buddhist texts in this class I have come to change my opinion about this reading. Initially I had found the sparse and listlike style of I-ching to be dry and communicative of only the barest amount of information. I was disturbed that the personal information about the monks was purposely absent, as was more descriptive information about their lives and travels. What had not occurred to me was that this sparse style may have been meant to communicate something itself.
As Emily stated in her blog:
"Perhaps, flowing with Buddhist tradition, the clear and concise format is an exercise in being mindful of the emptiness of the material world, an exercise in being careful not to get wrapped up and lost in the sensory details and yet to still see the relevance of encounters within that same sensory world."
This statement profoundly influenced my understanding of this text. While I was at first sceptical of this interpretation, it now makes sense within the context of Buddhism I am familar with. WIthin the tradition of Buddhism, where the material world is de-emphasized and greater emphasis is placed on the spiritual training of the believers, it would be approprite to record merely the barest details of the journey and religious activity of the monks and not subsume the information in a colourful narrative of their lives. In addition, by reading other texts, such as Dogen or the Lotus Sutra, it became clear that often as much information was communicated through the style of writing as by the content of the work itself. Through learning to read texts in this manner of being aware of the style as purposeful and communicative I have come to a different understanding of the text. One must wonder however, if other readers of this text, such as monks looking for inspiration to make the journey to India, would have gleaned this intended meaning from the text. But, as I-ching's account falls so comfortably within the teachings of the emptiness and illusion of the material world found in Buddhism, it is probable that it did.

  
 



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